1. A clock system, comprising:
a digital phasefrequency detector (DPFD) having a first input for a reference clock, a second input for a feedback clock, the DPFD generating an output representing a difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock;
a buffer coupled to the DPFD for storing the difference signal over time and outputting a control word (F);
a digitally-controlled oscillator (DCO) comprising:
a sigma-delta modulator (SDM) having a control input coupled to the buffer,
an adder having inputs coupled to the SDM and a source of an integer control word (N), and
a first frequency divider having (1) a clock input for receiving an external source clock signal and (2) a control input coupled to the adder, the DCO generating an output clock signal having an average frequency representing a frequency of the external source clock signal divided by (N+FM), wherein M is a modulus of the SDM; and
a second frequency divider coupled to the DCO output clock signal outputting the feedback clock to the DPFD.
2. The clock system of claim 1, further comprising a digital loop filter provided between the DPFD and the buffer for low-pass filtering the output from the DPFD.
3. The clock system of claim 1, wherein the second frequency divider is an integer frequency divider or a fractional frequency divider.
4. The clock system of claim 1, wherein the external source clock signal is an active input to the DCO even at times when the reference clock is invalid.
5. The clock system of claim 1, further comprising:
a signal detector to identify times when the reference clock is invalid,
wherein the buffer is coupled to the DPFD via a switch that, under control of the signal detector, disengages the buffer from the DPFD when the reference clock is invalid.
6. The clock system of claim 5, wherein when the switch disengages the buffer from the DPFD, the buffer holds the then-current value stored in the buffer or the average of stored values over a period of time.
7. The clock system of claim 1, further comprising a phase-locked loop coupled to the output of the DCO for multiplying a frequency of the DCO output clock.
8. The clock system of claim 1, wherein the DCO includes a feed-forward signal path that includes the SDM, the adder, and the first frequency divider.
9. The clock system of claim 1, wherein the DCO includes a feed-forward signal path that includes the SDM, the adder, and the first frequency divider, and wherein the feed-forward path does not include signal feedback.
10. The clock system of claim 1, wherein the DCO includes a feed-forward only signal path that includes the SDM, the adder, and the first frequency divider.
11. A clock system, comprising:
a forward signal path including:
a digital phasefrequency detector (DPFD) having a first input coupled to a reference input clock, a second input for a feedback signal, the DPFD generating a difference signal representing a phasefrequency difference between first and second inputs;
a controller coupled to the DPFD for scaling the difference signal and storing the scaled difference signal as control bits in a data storage and average element (DSAE); and
a digitally-controlled oscillator (DCO) comprising:
a sigma-delta modulator (SDM) having a control input (F) coupled to the buffer,
an adder having inputs coupled to the SDM and a source of an integer control word, and
a first frequency divider having a clock input for receiving an external clock signal and a control input coupled to the adder, the DCO generating an output clock signal having an average frequency representing a frequency of the external clock signal divided by (N+FM), wherein N is determined by the integer control word and M is a modulus of the SDM; and
a feedback signal path coupled to a DCO output comprising:
a second frequency divider for providing the feedback signal to the DPFD.
12. The clock system of claim 11, wherein:
the forward signal path further comprises a first time-to-digital converter (TDC) provided between the reference input clock and the first input terminal of the DPFD; and
the feedback signal path further comprises a second TDC provided between the frequency divider and the second input terminal of the DPFD.
13. The clock system of claim 12, wherein:
the second frequency divider is an integer or fractional frequency divider,
the forward signal path further comprises a fractional frequency divider provided between the reference input clock and the first input terminal of the DPFD, and
the feedback signal path further comprises a fractional frequency divider provided between the second frequency divider and the second input terminal of the DPFD.
14. The clock system of claim 11, wherein the forward signal path further comprises a digital loop filter provided between the output terminal of the DPFD and the controller.
15. The clock system of claim 11, further comprising a phase-locked loop coupled to the output of the DCO for multiplying a frequency of the DCO output clock and for noise filtering.
16. The clock system of claim 11, wherein the clock input to the DCO supplies to the first frequency divider even at times when the reference input clock is lost.
17. The clock system of claim 11, wherein the clock input to the DCO is frequency-multiplied before supplied to the first frequency divider.
18. The clock system of claim 11, further comprising:
a signal detector to identify times when the reference input clock is invalid,
wherein the controller is coupled to the DPFD via a switch that, under control of the signal detector, disengages the controller from the DPFD when the reference input clock is invalid.
19. The clock system of claim 18, wherein when the switch disengages the controller from the DPFD, the DSAE holds the then-current control bits stored in the DSAE or an average of values stored over a period of time.
20. A clock generation method, comprising:
frequency dividing an external clock signal in response to a time varying control signal to generate an output clock signal, the control signal taking integer value that, over time, average to a value represented by N+FM, wherein N is an integer value and FM is a fractional value,
generating the time-varying control signal by:
comparing, over time, a representation of the output clock signal to a reference clock signal;
storing results of the comparisons over time, the stored results determining the value of F, and
outputting the stored results to a sigma-delta modulator, the sigma-delta modulator generating integer outputs that, over time, average to the FM fractional value.
21. The method of claim 20, further comprising, during a period where the reference clock signal is inactive, engaging a holdover mode in which:
the control signal is held at a then-current value or an average value of values stored over a period of time, and
the frequency division is performed using the held control signal value.
22. The method of claim 21, further comprising, when the reference clock becomes active following inactivity, disengaging the holdover mode in which ordinary operation of the time-varying control signal is resumed.
23. A clock system, comprising:
a digital phasefrequency detector (DPFD) having a first input for a reference clock, a second input for a feedback clock, the DPFD generating an output representing a difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock;
a buffer coupled to the DPFD for storing the difference signal over time;
a switch that disengages the buffer from the DPFD when the reference clock is lost;
a digitally-controlled oscillator (DCO), having a first input coupled to the buffer and a second input coupled to a source clock, the DCO generating an output clock signal; and
a frequency divider coupled to the DCO output outputting the feedback clock to the DPFD,
wherein the DCO comprises:
a sigma-delta modulator (SDM), responsive to a stored value from the buffer for generating a pattern of integer values that, averaged over a period of time, have a fractional value (FM) as determined by the stored value;
an adder having a first input coupled to the SDM and a second input for receiving an integer value (N); and
a multi-modulus divider (MMD) having a control input coupled to an output of the adder and a clock input terminal coupled to an external source clock, the MMD performing integer frequency division of the external source clock based on values present at the control input, wherein the division takes the form 1(N+FM) averaged over the period of time.
24. The clock system of claim 23, wherein the clock system is contained within a common integrated circuit.
25. The clock system of claim 23, further comprising a frequency multiplying PLL coupled to a clock output of the DCO for frequency multiplication and noise filtering.
The claims below are in addition to those above.
All refrences to claim(s) which appear below refer to the numbering after this setence.
1. A method, comprising:
providing a substrate having a metallization layer with at least one metal feature, wherein said substrate comprises a dielectric material layer having a recess and providing a substrate having a metallization layer comprises depositing a metal feature material in said recess by overfilling said recess with said metal feature material, thereby depositing metal feature material above a surface of said dielectric material and planarizing said substrate after depositing said metal feature material, thereby removing metal feature material extending above said surface of said dielectric material;
forming a grain orientation layer above said metal feature and in direct contact with said metal feature after planarizing said substrate, wherein said grain orientation layer comprises a material different than said metal feature;
annealing said metal feature after forming said grain orientation layer to thereby increase a percentage of grains in said metal feature which have said predetermined grain orientation, wherein, during said annealing, said grain orientation layer energetically favors a predetermined grain orientation of grains in said metal feature compared to other grain orientations of grains in said metal feature; and
selectively removing said grain orientation layer after said annealing of said metal feature, wherein grain orientation layer material of said grain orientation layer diffused into said metal feature is completely removed during the removing of said grain orientation layer.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein said metal feature comprises copper.
3. The method of claim 1, wherein said grain orientation layer is a metal layer.
4. The method of claim 1, wherein said grain orientation layer is a dielectric layer.
5. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming a capping layer over said metal feature after removing said grain orientation layer.
6. The method of claim 1, wherein the grain orientation layer is deposited by employing deposition parameters such that said grain orientation layer has a predominant grain orientation.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein, during said annealing, the grain orientation layer has an elastic modulus which is higher than an elastic modulus of said metal feature.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein, during said annealing, a hardness of said grain orientation layer is greater than a hardness of said metal feature.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one metal feature comprises a metal line.
10. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one metal feature comprises a via plug for electrically connecting metal features of two different levels.